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The Counter-Reformation which is also known as Catholic Reformation was known as the era of Catholic Resurgence which started in the response of Protestant Reformation and towards internal revival. [36] Especially effective were writings in German, including Luther's translation of the Bible, his Smaller Catechism for parents teaching their children, and his Larger Catechism, for pastors. The faith continued to spread after Calvin's death in 1563 and reached as far as Constantinople by the start of the 17th century. On the eve of the Protestant Reformation, Christianity held the predominant position within the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and Catholicism received preferential treatment at the expense of the Eastern and Oriental Orthodox. While every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies. Fahlbusch, Erwin, and Bromiley, Geoffrey William (2003). In 2019, Christos Yannaras told Norman Russell that although he had participated in the Zo movement, he had come to regard it as Crypto-Protestant.[85]. This unit introduces three religious-based reform movements: Protestantism in mainland Europe, Protestantism in England, and the Catholic Counter-Reformation, as well as the subsequent violence they caused. The Commonwealth was unique in Europe in the 16th century for its widespread tolerance confirmed by the Warsaw Confederation. It resulted in the creation of a branch of Christianity called Protestantism, a name used collectively to refer to the many religious groups that separated from the Roman Catholic Church due to differences in doctrine. Kooi, Christine. Primo Trubar is notable for consolidating the Slovene language and is considered to be the key figure of Slovenian cultural history, in many aspects a major Slovene historical personality. Reformers and their opponents made heavy use of inexpensive pamphlets as well as vernacular Bibles using the relatively new printing press, so there was swift movement of both ideas and documents. King Sigismund of Poland and Martin Luther: The Reformation before Confessionalization : Nowakowska, Dr Natalia: Amazon.it: Libri The Protestant teachings of the Western Church were also briefly adopted within the Eastern Orthodox Church through the Greek Patriarch Cyril Lucaris in 1629 with the publishing of the Confessio (Calvinistic doctrine) in Geneva. Prior to the Protestant Reformation, pretty much everyone in Europe was a Roman Catholic. The Counter-Reformation which is also known as Catholic Reformation and known as the period when Catholic Resurgence took place and it started in the response of Protestant Reformation and towards internal revival. Elton, Geoffrey R. and Andrew Pettegree, eds. The Reformation was the start of Protestantism and the split of the Western Church into Protestantism and what is now the Roman Catholic Church. She finds, "in contemporary scholarship, the Reformation is now seen as a vast cultural upheaval, a social and popular movement, textured and rich because of its diversity. This Catholic reform movement is called the Counter-Reformation. Luther's influence had already reached Iceland before King Christian's decree. The few preachers who did take an interest in "Lutheranism", as it was called in Italy, were suppressed or went into exile to northern countries where their message was well received. The wars only concluded when Henry IV, himself a former Huguenot, issued the Edict of Nantes (1598), promising official toleration of the Protestant minority, but under highly restricted conditions. There had long been a strong strain of anti-clericalism. The council did not address the national tensions or the theological tensions stirred up during the previous century and could not prevent schism and the Hussite Wars in Bohemia. The Counter-Reformation was a religious and political movement that involved the creation of new practices and policies in the Catholic Church. Lutheranism found few adherents among the other peoples of the two countries. The Habsburgs, who ruled Spain, Austria, the Crown of Bohemia, Hungary, Slovene Lands, the Spanish Netherlands and much of Germany and Italy, were staunch defenders of the Catholic Church. Calvinism became the most numerous Protestant group because Calvin's teachings on the role of the state within religion appealed to the nobility (known as szlachta), mainly in Lesser Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. C. involved the creation of new practices and policies in the Catholic Church. As a result, some of them lived as crypto-Protestants, also called Nicodemites, contrary to the urging of John Calvin, who wanted them to live their faith openly. Even later, Lutheranism gained a substantial following, after being permitted by the Habsburgs with the continued persecution of the Czech native Hussite churches. Executions ceased in 1661 when King Charles II explicitly forbade Massachusetts from executing anyone for professing Quakerism. Luther survived after being declared an outlaw due to the protection of Elector Frederick the Wise. Leaders within the Roman Catholic Church responded with the Counter-Reformation, initiated by the Confutatio Augustana in 1530, the Council of Trent in 1545, the formation of the Jesuits in 1540, the Defensio Tridentin fidei in 1578, and also a series of wars and expulsions of Protestants that continued until the 19th century. Some Protestants left Italy and became outstanding activists of the European Reformation, mainly in the PolishLithuanian Commonwealth (e.g. In 1588, the Bishop of Llandaff published the entire Bible in the Welsh language. This was a debate over the Christian religion. A belief that forgiveness comes only from God rather than from a combination of faith and good deeds. Improved training and education for some Roman Catholic priests. Under the reign of Frederick I (152333), Denmark remained officially Catholic. Although the two movements agreed on many issues of theology, as the recently introduced printing press spread ideas rapidly from place to place, some unresolved differences kept them separate. George Mason University's study on the fall of communism states, "Poland is, at first glance, one of the most religiously homogeneous countries on earth. The Reformation foundations engaged with Augustinianism. Two main tenets of the Peace of Westphalia, which ended the Thirty Years' War, were: The treaty also effectively ended the Papacy's pan-European political power. Divergent work attitudes of Protestant and Catholics. In the history of theology or philosophy, the Reformation era ended with the Age of Orthodoxy. They also objected to ecclesiastical courts. Profound social and political changes were taking place in the West, with the awakening of . The Reformation has been credited as a key factor in the formation of transnational advocacy movements. He was raised to the rank of a cardinal in 1565 and a year later was made bishop of Bologna. [citation needed], The absence of Protestants, however, does not necessarily imply a failure of the Reformation. Beginning in Germany and Switzerland in the 16th century, the Radical Reformation developed radical Protestant churches throughout Europe. Unrest due to the Great Schism of Western Christianity (13781416) excited wars between princes, uprisings among the peasants, and widespread concern over corruption in the Church, especially from John Wycliffe at Oxford University and from Jan Hus at the Charles University in Prague. While Lutheranism gained a foothold among the German- and Slovak-speaking populations, Calvinism became widely accepted among ethnic Hungarians. The Reformation spread throughout Europe beginning in 1517, reaching its peak between 1545 and 1620. The Protestant Reformation was a sixteenth century religious movement that attempted to reform and diminish the powers of the Roman Catholic Church in Europe, but that later created another branch of religion, Protestantism. Henry strongly wanted a male heir, and many of his subjects might have agreed, if only because they wanted to avoid another dynastic conflict like the Wars of the Roses. Catholics labeled self-identified Evangelicals "Lutherans" to discredit them after the practice of naming a heresy after its founder. [71][72] When Henry II took the throne in 1547, the persecution of Protestants grew and special courts for the trial of heretics were also established in the Parlement de Paris. His "Ordinances" of 1541 involved a collaboration of Church affairs with the City council and consistory to bring morality to all areas of life. In Switzerland, the teachings of the reformers and especially those of Zwingli and Calvin had a profound effect, despite frequent quarrels between the different branches of the Reformation. [62] In 1647, Massachusetts passed a law prohibiting any Jesuit Roman Catholic priests from entering territory under Puritan jurisdiction. Discover which Roman Catholic practices caused Martin Luther to write his. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009. About us. People who did not conform to the will of the Habsburgs and the leaders of the Catholic Church were forcibly sent there. Originally the Reformed Church in Poland included both the Calvinists and the Anti-trinitarians (also known as the Socinians and the Polish Brethren); however, they eventually split due to an inability to reconcile their divergent views on the Trinity. After the Peace of Augsburg, which religion was officially recognized in many German states? The context of the Reformation was the strange state of the Catholic Church as of the late fifteenth century. Do not translate text that appears unreliable or low-quality. However few copies of Calvin's writings were available before mid-19th century.[68]. Under Edward VI the Church of England moved closer to continental Protestantism. [57] Von Mervitz seized a monastery in Viey with the help of his sheriff, Dietrich of Minden, and his soldiers. The citizens of Geneva became Protestant in the course of declaring independence from the town's lords, the local bishop and the Catholic Dukes of Savoy. The English Parliament confirmed the King's supremacy over the Church in the Kingdom of England. No one translated the Bible into Italian; few tracts were written. This unit introduces three religious-based reform movements: Protestantism in mainland Europe, Protestantism in England, and the Catholic Counter-Reformation, as well as the subsequent violence they caused. After the Heidelberg Disputation (1518) where Luther described the Theology of the Cross as opposed to the Theology of Glory and the Leipzig Disputation (1519), the faith issues were brought to the attention of other German theologians throughout the Empire. Under Philip II, conservatives in the Spanish church tightened their grip, and those who refused to recant such as Rodrigo de Valer were condemned to life imprisonment. Southern Europe remained predominantly Catholic apart from the much-persecuted Waldensians. involved the creation of new practices and policies in the Catholic Church. Instead the Catholic Church undertook a long and steady campaign of persuasion. Although Protestants were excommunicated and ended up worshipping in communions separate from Catholics (contrary to the original intention of the Reformers), they were also suppressed and persecuted in most of Europe at one point. Hussites made up the vast majority of the population, forcing the Council of Basel to recognize in 1437 a system of two "religions" for the first time, signing the Compacts of Basel for the kingdom (Catholic and Czech Ultraquism a Hussite movement). While in the middle of the 16th century the nobility mostly sent their sons abroad for education (the new German Protestant universities were important in this regard), by the mid-1600s the nobility mostly stayed home for education. The term Protestant, though initially purely political in nature, later acquired a broader sense, referring to a member of any Western church which subscribed to the main Protestant principles. King Sigismund of Poland and Martin Luther: The Reformation before Confessionalization. Which led to the creation of the Church of England? [a] Due to the reform efforts of Hus and other Bohemian reformers, Utraquist Hussitism was acknowledged by the Council of Basel and was officially tolerated in the Crown of Bohemia, although other movements were still subject to persecution, including the Lollards in England and the Waldensians in France and Italian regions. Although Robert Barnes attempted to get Henry VIII to adopt Lutheran theology, he refused to do so in 1538 and burned him at the stake in 1540. [citation needed]. The split between Christians in western Europe led to wars as countries struggled with new religious alliances. Calvinism developed through the Puritan period, following the restoration of the monarchy under Charles II, and within Wales' Calvinistic Methodist movement. The Reformation is usually dated to 31 October 1517 in Wittenberg, Saxony, when Luther sent his Ninety-Five Theses on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences to the Archbishop of Mainz. Back then, Slovakia used to be a part of the Kingdom of Hungary. In 1558 the Transylvanian Diet of Turda decreed the free practice of both the Catholic and Lutheran religions, but prohibited Calvinism. The compromise was uneasy and was capable of veering between extreme Calvinism on one hand and Catholicism on the other. Its development was stopped by the Counter-Reformation, the Inquisition and also popular disinterest. He would later in the period 15171521 write works on devotion to Virgin Mary, the intercession of and devotion to the saints, the sacraments, mandatory clerical celibacy, and later on the authority of the pope, the ecclesiastical law, censure and excommunication, the role of secular rulers in religious matters, the relationship between Christianity and the law, good works, and monasticism. Different levels of income tax revenue per capita,% of labor force in manufacturing and services, and incomes of male elementary school teachers. Several publishing houses were opened in Lesser Poland in the mid-16th century in such locations as Somniki and Rakw. They fled first to Holland, and then later to America to establish the English colony of Massachusetts in New England, which later became one of the original United States. The Thirty Years' War began in 1618 and brought a drastic territorial and demographic decline when the House of Habsburg introduced counter-reformational measures throughout their vast possessions in Central Europe. Although Zwinglianism does hold uncanny resemblance to Lutheranism (it even had its own equivalent of the Ninety-five Theses, called the 67 Conclusions), historians have been unable to prove that Zwingli had any contact with Luther's publications before 1520, and Zwingli himself maintained that he had prevented himself from reading them. The early Reformation in Germany mostly concerns the life of Martin Luther until he was excommunicated by Pope Leo X on 3 January 1521, in the bull Decet Romanum Pontificem. Such strong measures only fanned the flames of protest, however. [61] She was one of the four executed Quakers known as the Boston martyrs. The 1530 Augsburg Confession concluded that "in doctrine and ceremonies nothing has been received on our part against Scripture or the Church Catholic", and even after the Council of Trent, Martin Chemnitz published the 156573 Examination of the Council of Trent[5] as an attempt to prove that Trent innovated on doctrine while the Lutherans were following in the footsteps of the Church Fathers and Apostles.[6][7]. Given sentence below refers to a numbered sentence in the passage. Sigismund, who was also the King of Sweden until deposed, was educated by Jesuits in Sweden before his election as King of the PolishLithuanian Commonwealth. Luxembourg, a part of the Spanish Netherlands, remained Catholic during the Reformation era because Protestantism was illegal until 1768. Harvard Series in Ukrainian Studies, 2001. The Lutheran Reformation was started by Martin Luther in 1517 when he wrote and published his Ninety-Five Theses. The Roman Inquisition was a court of the Catholic Church that prosecuted crimes of heresy. The Reformation did not receive overt state support until 1525, although it was only due to the protection of Elector Frederick the Wise (who had a strange dream[48] the night prior to 31 October 1517) that Luther survived after being declared an outlaw, in hiding at Wartburg Castle and then returning to Wittenberg. After this first stage of the Reformation, following the excommunication of Luther in Decet Romanum Pontificem and the condemnation of his followers by the edicts of the 1521 Diet of Worms, the work and writings of John Calvin were influential in establishing a loose consensus among various churches in Switzerland, Scotland, Hungary, Germany and elsewhere. During this time as the issue of religious faith entered into the arena of politics, Francis came to view the movement as a threat to the kingdom's stability. [17][bettersourceneeded], Pope Sixtus IV (14711484) established the practice of selling indulgences to be applied to the dead, thereby establishing a new stream of revenue with agents across Europe. Crisis and Reform: The Kyivan Metropolitanate, the Patriarchate of Constantinople, and the Genesis of the Union of Brest. In Table Talk, Luther describes it as a sudden realization. According to a 2020 study in the American Sociological Review, the Reformation spread earliest to areas where Luther had pre-existing social relations, such as mail correspondents, and former students, as well as where he had visited. Various interpretations emphasise different dates, entire periods, or argue that the Reformation never really ended. Notable reformers included Dr. Juan Gil and Juan Prez de Pineda who subsequently fled and worked alongside others such as Francisco de Enzinas to translate the Greek New Testament into the Spanish language, a task completed by 1556. Calvinism was popular among the Hungarians who inhabited the southernmost parts of what is now Slovakia. The Reformation in western and central Europe officially began in 1517 with Martin Luther and his 95 Theses. [57] In 1539, the King sent a new governor to Iceland, Klaus von Mervitz, with a mandate to introduce reform and take possession of church property. Harsh persecution of Protestants by the Spanish government of Philip II contributed to a desire for independence in the provinces, which led to the Eighty Years' War and, eventually, the separation of the largely Protestant Dutch Republic from the Catholic-dominated Southern Netherlands (present-day Belgium). . G. Reformation and Counter Reformation Print section Reformers of different kindsincluding John Wycliffe, John Huss (Jan Hus), and Girolamo Savonaroladenounced the moral laxity and financial corruption that had infected the church "in its members and in its head" and called for radical change. A significant Protestant minority remained, most of it adhering to the Calvinist faith. Which leader restored the Church of England? Reformers in the Church of England alternated, for decades, between sympathies between Catholic tradition and Reformed principles, gradually developing, within the context of robustly Protestant doctrine, a tradition considered a middle way (via media) between the Catholic and Protestant traditions. [citation needed], Luther and his followers did not see these theological developments as changes. The Hussites were a Christian movement in the Kingdom of Bohemia following the teachings of Czech reformer Jan Hus. The different character of the English Reformation came rather from the fact that it was driven initially by the political necessities of Henry VIII. The Puritans persecuted those of other religious faiths,[60] for example, Anne Hutchinson was banished to Rhode Island during the Antinomian Controversy and Quaker Mary Dyer was hanged in Boston for repeatedly defying a Puritan law banning Quakers from the colony. Which statement best describes a reform initiated by the Council of Trent? In 1666, the Sejm banned apostasy from Catholicism to any other religion, under penalty of death. The Counter-Reformation was a movement within the Roman Catholic Church which began in the 1500s. A. worked to spread the ideas and teachings of John Calvin across Europe. The Wars of the Reformation began with the Knights' Revolt of 1522-1523, followed by the German Peasants' Revolt in 1524-1525, the Eighty Years' War in 1566-1648, the French Wars of Religion . The spread of Protestantism in the country was assisted by its large ethnic German minority, which could understand and translate the writings of Martin Luther. All of Scandinavia ultimately adopted Lutheranism over the course of the 16th century, as the monarchs of Denmark (who also ruled Norway and Iceland) and Sweden (who also ruled Finland) converted to that faith. These two movements quickly agreed on most issues, but some unresolved differences kept them separate. The Reformation in Scotland's case culminated ecclesiastically in the establishment of a church along reformed lines, and politically in the triumph of English influence over that of France. [64], The Pilgrims held radical Protestant disapproval of Christmas, and its celebration was outlawed in Boston from 1659 to 1681. Church leaders worked to correct abuses. Numerous colleges and universities were set up throughout the country: the Jesuits and Piarists were important in this regard but there were contributions of other religious orders such as the Dominicans. The Protestant Reformation was a religious reform movement that swept through Europe in the 1500s. This led to a Counter-Reformation in Spain in the 1530s. [83] He was the key figure of the Protestant Church of the Slovene Lands, as he was its founder and its first superintendent. Although the Thirty Years' War concluded with the Peace of Westphalia, the French Wars of the Counter-Reformation continued, as well as the expulsion of Protestants in Austria. Anabaptist movements were especially persecuted following the German Peasants' War. Some[who?] Four religions were declared to be "accepted" (recepta) religions (the fourth being Unitarianism, which became official in 1583 as the faith of the only Unitarian king, John II Sigismund Zpolya, r. 15401571), while Eastern Orthodox Christianity was "tolerated" (though the building of stone Orthodox churches was forbidden). An important component of the Catholic Reformation in Poland was education. Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. Gudziak, Borys A. This changed in 1534 with the Affair of the Placards. The term includes Thomas Mntzer, Andreas Karlstadt, the Zwickau prophets, and Anabaptists like the Hutterites and Mennonites. [citation needed]. From a Catholic perspective, the Second Vatican Council called for an end to the Counter-Reformation. The vested interest thus created made for a powerful force in support of the dissolution. The Reformation not only changed how individuals viewed religion in Europe, but also caused political upheaval. Other Protestant movements grew up along the lines of mysticism or humanism (cf. The shift toward political and religious freedom in turn, helped spawn the Reformation movement, which caused a divide within the powerful Catholic Church, leading many Europeans to turn to then . The Deluge, a 20-year period of almost continual warfare, marked the turning point in attitudes. The Peace of Augsburg was later broken by, The Counter-Reformation was a religious and political movement that. Proximity to neighbours who adopted Protestantism increased the likelihood of adopting Protestantism. Common factors that played a role during the Reformation and the Counter-Reformation included the rise of the printing press, nationalism, simony, the appointment of Cardinal-nephews, and other corruption of the Roman Curia and other ecclesiastical hierarchy, the impact of humanism, the new learning of the Renaissance versus scholasticism, and the Western Schism that eroded loyalty to the Papacy. In the Ruthenian lands (predominately modern day Belarus & Ukraine) the Orthodox Church also undertook a similar strategy. Germany was home to the greatest number of Protestant reformers. He subsequently sponsored Maximos of Gallipoli's translation of the New Testament into the Modern Greek language and it was published in Geneva in 1638. [citation needed]. Historians began to concentrate on the values, beliefs and behavior of the people at large. Counter-Reformation, also called Catholic Reformation or Catholic Revival, in the history of Christianity, the Roman Catholic efforts directed in the 16th and early 17th centuries both against the Protestant Reformation and toward internal renewal. The Counter-Reformation was a religious and political movement that. Peace of Augsburg in 1555 officially ended the religious struggle between the two groups and made the legal division of Christianity permanent within the Holy Roman Empire, allowing rulers to choose either Lutheranism or Roman Catholicism as the official confession of their state. In the 1520s Luther's reforms spread among the mostly German-speaking inhabitants of such major cities as Danzig (now Gdask), Thorn (now Toru) and Elbing (now Elblg). [citation needed], Unlike similar movements for religious reform on the continent of Europe, the various phases of the English Reformation as it developed in Ireland were largely driven by changes in government policy, to which public opinion in England gradually accommodated itself. The Counter-Reformation was the label for the Roman Catholic revival of the sixteenth century. Which statement best describes a reform initiated by the Council of Trent? Through German trade connections, many young Icelanders studied in Hamburg. The Reformation in the Netherlands, unlike in many other countries, was not initiated by the rulers of the Seventeen Provinces, but instead by multiple popular movements which in turn were bolstered by the arrival of Protestant refugees from other parts of the continent. B. worked to spread the ideas and teachings of Martin Luther across Europe. The Duchy of Prussia, a vassal of the Polish Crown ruled by the Teutonic Knights, emerged as a key center of the movement, with numerous publishing houses issuing not only Bibles, but also catechisms, in German, Polish and Lithuanian. In the first decade of the Reformation, Luther's message became a movement, and the output of religious pamphlets in Germany was at its height. It is usually dated from the Council of Trent in 1545 to the end of the Great Turkish War in 1699, but according to some scholars, it continued afterwards and is ongoing in the present day. Spain, which had only recently managed to complete the reconquest of the Peninsula from the Moors in 1492, had been preoccupied with converting the Muslim and Jewish populations of the newly conquered regions through the establishment of the Spanish Inquisition in 1478. There were some notable opponents to the Henrician Reformation, such as Thomas More and Cardinal John Fisher, who were executed for their opposition. They condemned what they saw as Protestant errors. German princes and the Holy Roman Emperor. In the more independent northwest, the rulers and priests, protected now by the Habsburg monarchy, which had taken the field to fight the Turks, defended the old Catholic faith. Regions that were poor but had great economic potential and bad political institutions were more likely to adopt Protestantism. [citation needed], Refused an annulment of his marriage to Catherine, King Henry decided to remove the Church of England from the authority of Rome. Upon the arrival of the Protestant Reformation, Calvinism reached some Basques through the translation of the Bible into the Basque language by Joanes Leizarraga. The 17th century saw a complex struggle between Presbyterianism (particularly the Covenanters) and Episcopalianism. After the establishment of the Geneva academy in 1559, Geneva became the unofficial capital of the Protestant movement, providing refuge for Protestant exiles from all over Europe and educating them as Calvinist missionaries. These courts came to known as "La Chambre Ardente" ("the fiery chamber") because of their reputation of meting out death penalties on burning gallows.[73].